Prostitution Is The Worlds Oldest Profession - 1365 Words

Prostitution is known as â€Å"the world’s oldest profession.† It has been in practice since the beginning of time; whether it be legally or illegally. Prostitutes-typically women- are either accepted or shunned depending on the society they live in (Jenkins). At a point in time in Southern India, the Devadasi culture required girls to become prostitutes when they reached their puberty years in order to gather dowry money until it was outlawed in 1988 (Kelly). Despite the potential risks that prostitution has, it is still advocated in the twenty-first century. In the United States, prostitution is illegal everywhere other than ten counties in Nevada. â€Å"The most infamous brothel,† called The Mustang Ranch, resides in Sparks, Nevada (Nevada’s). Prostitution may reduce poverty; however, due to the increased risk of sexually transmitted diseases, abuse against women, and human trafficking, The Mustang Ranch should be shut down and prostitution must be outl awed in those ten counties. The Mustang Ranch first opened its doors in 1951, even though prostitution was not legal in Nevada until about twenty years later. Joe Conforte, â€Å"The Father of Legalized Prostitution,† took over the brothel in 1967 with his wife, Sally Burgess. Although he built a positive image for himself by feeding the hungry and offering free sessions to veterans, he was convicted of tax fraud in 1971, so The Mustang Brothel was seized and sold to the IRS in 1990 (A History). Then, Lance Gilman purchased the brothelShow MoreRelatedProstitution And The Worlds Oldest Profession2225 Words   |  9 PagesWhen looking into Prostitution women are usually thought to be the lowest form a part of the human species, people make assumptions as to why a women would even bother with the idea of subjecting herself to harsh treatment by others, people often correlate the idea of prostitution with human trafficking. That each of these categories are of association, prost itution is â€Å"the practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity with someone for payment.† While human trafficking is â€Å"the illegal movementRead MoreProstitution : The Worlds Oldest Profession1906 Words   |  8 PagesProstitution is often regarded as the world’s oldest profession. As immoral and illegal as it may be regarded, it is still a profession that is utilized by people today. Commercial Sex, as it is sometimes called, is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment or some other benefit. Prostitution is just one of the many branches of the sex industry and is possibly the largest. Prostitution is primarily targeted towards male clientele but the profession ranges fromRead MoreThe World s Oldest Profession For Nothing1613 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Prostitution isn t inherently immoral, any more than running a company like Enron is inherently immoral. It s how you do it that counts. And the reality is that it will happen anyway. It s not called the world s oldest profession for nothing. Why not make it, at the least, safe and productive?† -JEANNETTE ANGELL of A Wellness Perspective on Prostitution, Freedom, Religion, and More, Seek Wellness, Apr. 30, 2005. Prostitution, known as the world s oldest profession, and it exists everywhereRead MoreProstitution Is A Single Right Definition For Prostitution1167 Words   |  5 PagesProstitution is something that has and always will be existent. It’s legal in many parts of the world and it has always been debated whether or not it should be legalized here in the US. There are many aspects to look when determining whether it is the right or wrong thing to legalize prostitution. But first we have define what exactly is prostitution. There’s not a single right definition for prostitution. We could look at the dictionary definition that’s the transfer of money for sexual activityRead MoreWhat is Prostitution?1838 Words   |  7 Pages According to the 2014 Merriam-Webster dictionary, prostitution is defined as â€Å"the act of having sex in exchange for money† (â€Å"Prostitution†). In the United States, the trafficking of sex sales has been illegal since the early 1900’s, with the exception of the 49th state, Alaska (Head). The trade was deemed unethical by the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, also credited with the ban of drug use and the elimination of alcohol in the 1920’s. Today, in all but two states, the buying and selling ofRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legalized?1725 Words   |  7 PagesProstitution Should Be Legalized Some say prostitution is the world s oldest profession. Yet, only a small percentage of the world’s government allows it. The legalization of prostitution is a very controversial topic due to many people’s moral beliefs. Prostitutes all over the world are treated as outcasts. A reason for people to be against prostitution could be due to their religious beliefs, moral standpoints, or lack of knowledge over the subject. Many religions state that sex outside of marriageRead MoreWhy Prostitution Should Remain Illegal in the United States1494 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Paper 20 April 2012 Why Prostitution Should Remain Illegal in the United States Prostitution is said to be â€Å"the world’s oldest profession† (Ramchandran par. 1). The Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines prostitution as â€Å"the act or practice of engaging in promiscuous sexual relations especially for money† (â€Å"Prostitution† par. 1). Many people argue that prostitution should be legalized, but it hurts people more than it helps. Legalization of prostitution condones sexual behavior for profitRead MoreProstitution Is The World Oldest Profession1657 Words   |  7 PagesProstitution is â€Å"the exchange of sexual acts for money, food, rent, drugs, or other material goods.† (WomensLaw). One who works in this field is then to be labeled a prostitute. Although the field of prostitution is the world’s oldest profession, it is a topic that is typically hushed down and not often studied. It is a part of our society and must be discussed for a better understanding. Going on to say, the physical and psychologi cal behavior that is associated within prostitution is derived fromRead MoreShould Prostitution Be A Victimless Crime?1506 Words   |  7 PagesThe act of prostitution has been a leading topic of moral and legislative debate for centuries. Sometimes referred to as the ‘world’s oldest profession’ because it dates back to around 2400 B.C., prostitution is the practice of exchanging, selling or trading of sexual acts for payment. Although this service is forbidden amongst the world more often than it is not, the debate of its legalization has remained a heated issue (ProQuest Staff).The legalization of prostitution and whether or not prostitutionRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Prostitution1098 Words   |  5 Pages from a state to the other, prostitution is an integral part of society. Prostitution is often referred as the world oldest profession (Forrest). For thousands and thousands years, humans have been exchanging money or material goods for sex. Throughout man kind History, set of laws has been put in place with the purpose of controlling and regulating its practice. But, it has never appeared to prevail over its illegal operations. According to the dictionary prostitution is by definition the practice

Legal Issue Scenario Academic Dishonesty - 997 Words

Legal Issue Scenario: Academic Dishonesty Technology is rapidly evolving and changing, and as a result of the increasing availability and propagation of several forms of technology, academic dishonesty cases in every college and university have greatly multiplied and become a global issue. The issue on cheating behaviors in students is so pervasive and uncontrollable that it is almost considered as commonplace (Arhin Jones, 2009). One of the hardest challenges for educators is knowing how and when to discipline their students. In the given scenario, there are several issues to take into account; the first and foremost being the issue of academic dishonesty. Academic dishonesty is defined by the Webster dictionary as the intentional participation in deceptive practices regarding one’s academic work or the work of another (Faucher Caves, 2009). Jones (2011) states that many institutions of higher education have adopted academic dishonesty policies, instituted academic integ rity tutorial completion prerequisites for next term registration, and acquired plagiarism software detection tools. They go on to say that within the past few years, high-tech cheating is gradually replacing the simple cut-and-paste cheating, and educators must be proactive and develop instructional strategies that integrate all facets of appropriate digital citizenship, that is, digital ethics. By implementing these academic dishonesty and integrity policies and making them attainable toShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Academic Dishonesty1416 Words   |  6 Pagestechnology, academic dishonesty cases in every college and university have greatly multiplied and become a global issue. The issue on cheating behaviors in students is so pervasive and uncontrollable that it is almost considered as commonplace (Arhin Jones, 2009). One of the hardest challenges for educators is knowing how and when to discipline their students. In the given scenario, there are several issues to take into account; the first and foremost being the issue of academic dishonesty. â€Å"AcademicRead MoreKeeping The Students Rights And School Policies1806 Words   |  8 Pageswith another impartial faculty member present to discuss the situation. The educator would then inform the student that he or she has been accused of using his or her cellphone during the examination that day and would remind the student of the academic and school policies which clearly state that using devices, such as a cellphone, during the exam is strictly forbidden and provide the student with copies of the policies. The policies would be reviewed together and specific sections where prohibitionsRead MoreEssay on The Dangers of Cell Phones in Society2678 Words   |  11 Pagesraised. I believe that cell phones are dangerous, because of threat posed to safety, academic integrity, and communication skills in our society. The most prominent danger that exists with cell phones is threat they pose to safety. One threat to safety is the invasion of privacy. An invasion of privacy is defined as â€Å"the intrusion of one’s personal belongings property, which will leave him/her vulnerable to theft† (Legal Dictionary). This theft could range from physical property, to the person’s identityRead MoreThe Honest Truth Of Dishonesty2977 Words   |  12 Pagesamong colleagues, strengthening lawful legal systems, and classifying actions as morally acceptable or unacceptable. In recent years the idea of honesty has taken an abrupt halt and shifted towards the concept of dishonesty, a constantly growing enterprise formulated on incentives and misguided logic. This is the belief that a person’s behavior is deceitful or fraudulent, and is often misconstrued as a trait of swindlers and the morally corrupt. However, dishonesty is a natural occurrence seen in everyRead MorePlagiarism Is A For m Of Cheating2006 Words   |  9 PagesEssay on Plagiarism Nahien Chowdhury University of Florida â€Æ' What Constitutes Plagiarism? Plagiarism is a form of cheating, and a serious violation of the honor code and academic honesty in educational institutions. According to dictionary.com, plagiarism is: a piece of writing or other work reflecting such unauthorized use or imitation [1]. In simplified terms, plagiarism is taking and using some else’s work without giving credit to the righteous owner, for using their information. This work includesRead MoreEnergy Policy3086 Words   |  13 Pageswill be posted on the noticeboard and may also be broadcast on our Twitter feed - http://www.gsom.ac/twitter.asp. 2. Module Overview This module identifies the main elements of international energy policy – which centres around the issue of how we maintain sustainable economic growth whilst ensuring the security of energy supply in all its myriad forms and maintain bio-diversity or environmental sustainability. It will also deal with the assessment of world energy needs and the availableRead MoreMonetizing Debt: An Evasive Maneuver Essay2187 Words   |  9 PagesFederal Reserves performance. People must be more skeptical on key federal policies in the United States due to the current recessive state of our economy plundering potentially into disastrous levels. Monetizing debt is technically legal; however it becomes an issue of morality by the specifics to which it is being conducted. The constantly growing power of federal influence on markets, specifically the selling of national securities with the purpose of debt liquidation, not only defies the idealsRead MoreContingency Plan3864 Words   |  16 Pag es      Content       1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦3 2. Objectives of the plan†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..3 3. Stakeholders of Hong Kong Baptist University†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..4 4. List of potential risks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...4 5. Fabricating academic credentials of teaching staffs†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 5.1 Situation identification†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦..5 5.2 Responsibilities of Crisis Management Team†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦....6 5.3 Action to be taken†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦......10 5.3.1 Principles of action duringRead MoreSample Resume : Ensure A Safe Workplace2743 Words   |  11 Pagesmanagement systems _Assessment _1_ Due date: 28/07/2015 – OR – I have been granted an extension/Special Consideration until XX/XX/XXXX Time date submitted: HR:MIN AM / PM XX/XX/XXXX Academic Honesty All forms of plagiarism and unauthorised collusion are regarded as academic dishonesty by WIN, resulting in penalties including failure of the unit of study and possible disciplinary action. In submitting this assessment, I acknowledge the following: †¢ I have read and understood WINRead MoreThe Conflict Of Fiduciary Duty3046 Words   |  13 Pagesreasonable observer would perceive a real possibility of misuse of confidential information. Courts will consider public interests, the former client’s interests and need to maintain confidentiality and the importance of the current client’s choice of legal representation and the adverse consequences of disqualifying the lawyer. Because the information was not presented in a client-lawyer context and given the facts, Teddy did not impart any confidential information to Virginia, it is unlikely that there

Free Detection and Identification of Bacteria in Food Free Essays

Rapid detection and identification of bacteria in food and clinical laboratories Abstract Modern technological progress has affected how microbiology is practiced. There is emphasis on the minimalisation of laboratory costs, cost-efficiency and reliability of tests for efficient bacterial identification from food cultures. Before using any technology, it is recommended that the products’ performance characteristics be first tested, particularly as theses characteristics, are often not determined by the manufacturers. We will write a custom essay sample on Free Detection and Identification of Bacteria in Food or any similar topic only for you Order Now Consequently, the sensitivity and specificity, amongst other factors, associated with the use of these tests will also not have been determined. Additional factors would benefit from the use of controls, such as in the form of large scale and controlled clinical trials, in order to study the products’ performance. It is to be borne in mind that the involvement of ‘rapid’ tests, including an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, in bacterial detection may serve bests as methods for expeditious detection and screening than for the purposes of confirmation. 1. Introduction In order to help diagnose infectious diseases, such as the bacteria Salmonella, a leading cause of food poisoning, the need for specialised microbial tests has arisen. Testing food products using rapid methods is a complicated process requiring the balance of sensitivity and specificity for the achievement of a reliable result. The following sections will discuss the use of five different detection methods, flow cytometry, the enterotube II system, chromogenic media, the Enzyme linked immunoassay and polymerase chain reaction and the necessity to balance the specificity and sensitivity of each technique, for the most accurate means of bacterial detection. 2.0 Flow Cytometry Flow cytometry (FCM) is based on the principles of excitation of light, light scattering and fluorochrome molecular emission for the purposes of generating data covering a number of different parametric readings. FCM focuses on cells that measure 0.5um to 40 ?m in diameter. The technique of FCM relies on the provision of a light source, which, are usually lasers, and the cells must first be covered in a layer of phosphate buffered saline before being able to intercept the focused source of light. In this technique, a sample, containing the cells being tested, are injected into the centre of a sheath flow. Flow cytometry provides an analysis of cellular interactions at the macromolecular level. FCM is a technique that is considered to be a critical component of research in the biomedical field (Nolan Sklar,1998). 2.1 Milk testing FCM is one technique which may be useful when testing the safety and quality of milk. Testing milk requires analysis of somatic cell count and microbial analysis. Tests have shown (Gunasekera, et al., 2003) that the analysis of milk, where a known number of cells have been inoculated, upon clearing can be performed by FCM. FCM is able to give a good indication of the somatic cell count in raw milk and when coupled with other methods such as techniques involving fluorescence staining, can be used in testing biological milk quality. This therefore has an important application in the dairy industry, particularly in quality testing. 2.2 Analysis of Water Quality The use of flow cytometry has to date also occurred in tandem with heterotrophic plate count (HPC) for the rapid detection of the bacterial count of potable as well as raw water (Hoefel, et al., 2005). The results showed that FCM was much quicker than HCP, in detecting viable bacteria in samples that were classed as viable but not amenable to culture. The FCM method detected bacteria within an hour as opposed to several days, for the HCP technique. Studies have tested the sensitivity of FC-based assays in comparison to the plaque assay method, to measure levels of an infection virus in a sample (Cantera, et al., 2010). Poliovirus infection (PV1) was tested and the FCM method applied to a water sample infected with PV1-infected cells. The study revealed that a combination of flow cytometry, used with fluorescence resonance energy transfer technology, is able to sensitively and quickly detect the presence of infectious virus in a sample of environmental water. 2.3 Specificity of FCM FCM has also been used to investigate whether T4 phage infected cells with E. coli ATCC 111303 can be differentiated from uninfected cells, based on phage DNA fluorescent detection. The technique, involving the lysis of bacterial cells by phage, allowed for the detection for infected cells 35 minutes post infection. Thus, FCM is able to be specific, when used combined with phages of predetermined host specificity. Overall, FCM is able to quantitatively measure and sensitively detect molecular level interactions and as such it may be considered to be a robust and adaptable technology (Nolan Sklar, 1998). 3.0 The enterotube ll system The Enterotube II was described for the first time in 1969 (Painter Isenberg, 1973). This technology is an example of a rapid system of multi-test nature, functioning as a biochemical and enzymatic test method. The test system, functions by identifying unclassified gram-negative, rod shaped and oxidase-negative bacteria, belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The test is often conducted within clinical laboratories. The machine comprises a flat-sided tube within which are 12 compartments, developed to allow different biochemical tests to be conducted. The system does consistently produce accurate results, and hence is liable to produce occasional false results. 3.1 Sensitivity and specificity Reports such as the one by Dalton et al., (1993) in the detection of bacteriuria, have found that upon screening, only 55% specificity and 93% sensitivity have been obtained. O’Hara (2005) reports that it may be valuable for the diagnostic laboratory running tests, using equipment such as the Enterotube II system, to first stipulate what levels of ‘accuracy’ and ‘discrimination’ they consider are acceptable from their systems of identification. Accuracy of identification may be maximised by using the skills of a qualified microbiologist to confirm the bacterial classification (O’Hara, 2005). An additional way to potentially maximise sensitivity and specificity is to send an isolate to a reference laboratory in order to confirm identity. Use of enterotube II system will be for the testing of oxidase-negative bacteria and hence it should first be established that the oxidase test is not positive. To achieve this, and improve the specificity, an o xidase test may be performed on the relevant cultures. In order to improve interpretation of results from use of the Enterotube II system, a suitable incubation time should be used, such as 16 hours (in the analysis of carbohydrate reactions (Woolfrey, et al., 1981). Furthermore, tests resulting in ambiguous classifications should be reevaluated (Woolfrey, et al., 1981) in order to improve specificity, without hampering the tests’ sensitivity. 4.0 Chromogenic Media Chromogenic media (or fluorogenic media) are a microbial growth media of microbial nature. The media contains enzymes that are linked to either fluorogen (involved in light reaction) or chromogen (involved in colour reaction) or a combination of both. The method works by detecting activities that are enzymatic in nature, that are produced by the target microorganisms. Enzymatic activities are detected by the use of either organic compounds or dyes, as microorganisms, which grow in the proximity of these compounds are liable to make a distinctive pattern of colouring or alternatively fluoresce, which can be detected under UV light. Chromogenic media were first designed for application in clinical settings, but have proven to be useful in food testing. 4.1 Sensitivity and specificity of chromogenic media Chromogenic media are considered to be a sensitive method of media analysis, when compared to more conventional types of media analysis (Downes, 2001). This is because the chromogenic media method allows for a faster analysis, with a turnover time of 24 hours, and it is also considered to have a higher sensitivity. In the identification of E.coli or Listeria monocytogenes, for example, specially designed chromogenic media are available for the purposes of improving test sensitivity. When considering Salmonella detection, a number of specialised chromogenic media that are able to improve the specificity of detection are available. A study by Perez et al., (2003) showed that both broth enrichment and increasing the incubation time by a factor of two (from 24 hours to 48 hours) effectively increases the sensitivity of all of the media being used. Furthermore, due to the specificity of the chromogenic media, (determined to be greater than 84% following a two-day incubation period), a reduction in the need to undergo confirmatory tests improved the overall sensitivity of the specialized chromogenic media. A second study by Monneri et al., (1994), for the comparison of two new types of agar, media of chromogenic nature, Salmonella Detection and Identification Medium (SMID) and Rambach agar, against two conventional types of media for the detection of Salmonella. The results revealed that the newer chromogenic agar media were notably more specific than the more convent ional media. Rambach agar was furthermore slightly more specific than SMID, being able to detect all Salmonella serotypes following a complementary C8 esterase test. Hence, sensitivity and specificity can be maximised by increasing culture time to 2 days fully, and using Rambach agar where appropriate, such as in the detection of Salmonella serotypes. 5.0 Enzyme Linked Immunoassay The Enzyme linked immunoassay (ELISA) is a common antibody based technique designed for microorganism, or pathogenic, detection. The method is noted to have a high standard of specificity and sensitivity (Evans et al., 1989). A quantitative, or qualitative method may be used for the purposes of interpreting the results, which are, respectively, via the use of an instrumental read-out or through visual means. Specialised test kits to aid in the detection of Listeria, Salmonella and other microorganisms are commercially available. 5.1 Sensitivity and specificity A study by Evans et al., (1989) utilised ELISA in the detection of Campylobacter pylori. The specificity and sensitivity of the test allowed for the detection of serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies targeted against the cell-associated proteins of C. pylori. Values of specificity and positive predictive value were revealed to be 100% for the high molecular weight cell-associated proteins. Furthermore, the assay sensitivity was measured at 98.7%, with the negative predictive value recorded as 98.6%. This indicates that specialised ELISA tests are likely to be valuable in such instances as in the detection of H. pylori. Furthermore, the costs of using the ELISA, as noted by Evans et al., (1989) are that it is cost effective and readily usable, with a lower likelihood of obtaining false negatives than with other tests, such as the use of a ‘urea breath test’ which is also amenable to be useful for the same purpose. Svennerholm Holmgren, (1978) report that E. Coli can be sensitively detected using a ganglioside ELISA. The method was deemed to be reliable and allow a high level of reproducibility. In general, it has been reported that the specificity and, or, sensitivity of assays that are commercially available, such as the ELISA may be maximised by having set cut-off values decreed by the manufacturers, according to the target disease (Cuzzubbo, et al., 1999). Furthermore, the IgG test, due to having 100% specificity, is highly likely to be reliable, as a method for bacterial testing. 6.0 Polymerase Chain Reaction Similar to the ELISA test, the ‘PCR’ or the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is one of the most readily recognised and used diagnostic tool currently in use. PCR works by identifying a highly specific sequence of DNA from a microorganism that is under target. Subsequent to this, the sequence much be amplified in order to allow for detection of the microorganism. PCR is considered to be reliable and specific, as a detection method, being able to detect bacteria of pathogenic nature within a time frame of a day. As a form of DNA-based assay, PCR has been developed to detect foodbourne pathogens. For the purposes of DNA hybridization, PCR is able to amplify one single DNA copy in fewer than 2 hours by one million times. However, in situations where amplification is not completely efficient, such as when inhibitors are present in food, the normally extremely high levels of sensitivity of PCR become reduced. In order to improve sensitivity therefore, a form of cultural enrichm ent is likely to achieve this (Rose Stringer, 1989). As a rapid method to screen food samples for bacteria, PCR tests that are run and found to yield positive results are regarded as being ‘presumptive’ and require methods that are more conventional to confirm this (Feng, 1996). For direct testing, due to a lack of adequate specificity and sensitivity, pre-analsysis culture enrichment is frequently called for, which serves to increase specificity (Feng, 1997). 6.1 Sensitivity and specificity of PCR To maximise the sensitivity of certain types of PCR, such as NK-1R PCR, a form of ‘nested’ PCR, and for this an increased number of cycles of the primary PCR may be helpful. For example, 35 secondary PCR cycles and 45 primary PCR cycles, were performed by O’Connell (2002) as opposed to a more standard number of between 25 and 30 cycles for both to increase sensitivity. In order to identify and detect bacteria furthermore, qcRT-PCR is likely to be less sensitive overall than more conventional PCR and hence, single-target PCR is advisable for a higher level of sensitivity. It has also been noted that PCR conditions and parameters of cycling should ideally be optimised for every, and each primer in order to allow the achievement of a maximum yield of specific product and miminise monotarget sequence amplification. Knowles (1992) suggests that nested PCR may be helpful in improving both sensitivity and specificity. It is noted that increasing the speed of amplification of PCR has not effect upon test sensitivity, and hence this alteration it is unlikely to be worth the additional costs or time-saving advantage associated with increasing the cycling protocol. 7. Conclusion Rapid tests such as PCR, the Enterotube II system, ELISA, flow cytometry and chromogenic methods have both benefits and limitations. The relative availability of these techniques and the speed of detection of bacterial pathogens, amongst other factors, suggest advantages but the sensitivity and specificity of the tests must be such that a reliable test result is ensured. In conclusion, a balance of sensitivity and specificity is required, but, by using the techniques mentioned, the reliability of the results obtained by the microbiologist is most likely to be improved. Bibliography Cantera, J.L., Chen, W., Yates, M.V. 2010. Detection of Infective Poliovirus by a Simple, Rapid, and Sensitive Flow Cytometry Method Based on Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Technology. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(2), pp.584-588. Cuzzubbo, A. J., Vaughn, D.W., Nisalak, A., Solomon, T., Kalayanarooj, S., Aaskov, J., Dung, N.M. Devine, P.L. 1999. Comparison of PanBio Dengue Duo Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and MRL Dengue Fever Virus Immunoglobulin M Capture ELISA for Diagnosis of Dengue Virus Infections in Southeast Asia. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 6(5), pp. 705-712. Dalton, M.T., Comeau, S., Rainnie, B., Lambert, K Forward, K.R.1993. A comparison of the API Uriscreen with the Vitek Urine Identification-3 and the leukocyte esterase or nitrite strip as a screening test for bacteriuria. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 16(2), pp.93-97. Downes, F.P. 2001. Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foods. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. Evans, D.J. Jr., Evans, D.G., Graham, D.Y. Klein, P.D. 1989. A sensitive and specific serologic test for detection of Campylobacter pylori infection. Gastroenterology. 96(4), pp. 1004-1008. Feng. P. 1996. Emergence of rapid methods for identifying microbial pathogens in foods. Journal of AOAC International. 79(3), pp.809-812. Feng, P. 1997. Impact of Molecular Biology on the Detection of Foodborne Pathogens. Molecular Biotechnology. 7(3)., pp.267-278. Gunasekera, T.S., Veal, D.A., Attfield, P.V. 2003. Potential for broad applications of flow cytometry and fluorescence techniques in microbiological and somatic cell analyses of milk. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 85(3), pp.269-279. Hoefel, D., Monis, P.T., Grooby, W.L., Andrews,S., Saint, C.P. 2005. Culture-Independent Techniques for Rapid Detection of Bacteria Associated with Loss of Chloramine Residual in a Drinking Water System. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 71(11) pp. 6479-6488. Knowles, D.M. (ed.). 1992. Neoplastic Hematopathology, 1st ed. Williams and Wilkins. pp. 919–930. Monnery, I., Freydiere, A.M., Baron, C., Rousset, A.M., Tigaud, S., Boude-Chevalier, M., de Montclos, H. Gille, Y. 1994. Evaluation of two new chromogenic media for detection of Salmonella in stools. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 13(3), pp. 257-261. Nolan, J.P Sklar, L.A. 1998. The emergence of flow cytometry for sensitive, real-time measurements of molecular interactions. Nature Biotechnology, 16(7), pp. 633 – 638. O’ Connell, J. 2002. RT-PCR Protocols. Totowa: Humana Press Inc. O’Hara, C.M., 2005. Manual and Automated Instrumentation for Identification of Enterobacteriaceae and Other Aerobic Gram-Negative Bacilli. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 18(1), pp. 147-162. Painter, B.G. Isenberg, H.D. 1973. Clinical laboratory experience with the improved Enterotube. 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